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英語文法:關係詞that

作者:由 Filter 發表于 繪畫時間:2022-10-16

that這個關係代詞(Relative pronoun),使用的頻率是非常的高,幾乎每個句子中都有它的身影,似乎不知道用什麼詞代替的時候就用that,準好使。由於使用的場合非常多,我們常常見到的有些用法未必就是正確的用法, 所以有必要徹底弄個明白。下面參考多種資料,儘量囊括各種用法講解。

1。that的詞源

that,古英語為þæt,表示“那個,如此……以致,在那之後”之義。中性的單數指示代詞(demonstrative pronoun,“A Man‘s a Man for a’ that”),關係代詞(“O thou that hearest prayer”)和指示代詞(“Look at that caveman go!”)對應陽性se(指masculine),陰性she(feminine)。來自原始的日耳曼語(Proto-Germanic)*that,原始印歐語(Proto-Indo-European)

*tod-

, 指示性代詞的基

*-to-

的擴充套件形式

隨著語法的“性”的格系統的分解,在古英語時期開始使用,在現代英語中對所有的性的格都適用。日耳曼的同源詞包括古撒克遜語(Old Saxon)that,古弗裡西亞語(Old Frisian)thet,中古時期荷蘭語(Middle Dutch)dat “that,” German

der

die

das

“the。”。通常比the更具體,更具有強調性,但是,在同等狀況下,它們可互換使用。 起法於大約1200年,與this相反,用於表示某種更遠的事物(即this表示“這”,更新,而that表示“那”,更“遠”)。在副詞中使用時(“I‘m that old”),隱含指示某事物或前面說過的某事物,在約1200年,作為“to that extent,” “to that degree。”記法的縮寫詞,作為一個連線詞(“Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more”),其原來是中性的代詞或者形容詞,that實際是作為一個限定性的冠詞來修飾整個句子。

俚語(口頭語)that way “in love”(戀愛中)第一次記錄是在1929年,俚語

That-a-way

“in that direction” 是從1839年開始有記錄,當擊打某人時說

"Take that!"

(看招!),早於15世紀有記錄。

2。關於that的各種論述

2。1。 Otto Jespersen對that的論述

2。1。1 非限定性從句中的that角色,that表示人和物的區別

在中世紀以及現代時期的初期,that是常用的關係詞,但是,從那以後,由於wh代詞的侵蝕,特別是在文學語言中,其使用範圍大為縮小。今天,在非限定性從句中,確實極少使用that,甚至在限定性從句中,當指人的時候,更傾向於使用who而不是that,而指物的時候,倒不那麼強調使用which。

在確定的非限定性從句中that的古風格用法例子:

(1) Chaucer B有Deeth,that taketh of heigh and logh his rent;

(2) Shakespeare Macbeth III 1。135有:Fleans,his sonne,that keeps him companie;Shakespeare ,the two Gentlemen of Verona II 4。174有:my foolish riuall,that her father likes;Shakespeare Hamlet I 1。31有your eares,That are so fortified against our story;同樣出處有the cocke that is the trumpet to the day;

(3) Milton C 662有as Daphne was,Root-bound, that fled Apollo;

(4) Fielding T 2。50有:my only child,my poor Sophy,that was the joy of my heart;

(5) Shaw Ms 27有it’s they that have put the job up。 It’s we that run the country for them;

(6) Buchan 39 Steps 123有It’s wise conspirator that knows his own name;

儘管,如前面評述,先行詞之後的that用於表示人,比起以前來講更為少見,但這個用法並未廢棄,例如,可參見兩個最新的引用,可能由於各種原因選用了第二個that

(1) Kipl L 72(此人未查證)有Whi’s the man that says that we’re all islands shouting lies to each other across seas of misunderstanding?;

(2) Russell Ed 126有The child who has been treated wisely and kindly has a frank look in the eyes,whereas the child that has been subject to nagging or severity is in perpetual terror of incurring reproof。

關於人稱先行詞之後的that使用的例子:

(1) Shaw Ms 27有it’s they that have put the job up;這兒they是人稱先行詞。

It’s we that run the country for them;

Shaw D 229有Is it you that’s going to be married or is it Dith?

Shaw 1。230有wont you take it from your own mother,that lives you and swears to you that it’s truth?

(2) Buchan 39 Steps 123有It’s a wise conspirator that knows his own name。

(3) Rosalind(in Shakespeare As you like it) asks“Are you he that hangs the verses on the trees?”。

(4) Bennett HL 81有it’s you that’s good。

(5) Galsw P 12。41有“Tisn’t I that wants to spoil your home。”。

(6) Swinnerton Noct。189有It’s me that has to give it up。

(7) Walpole GM 439有It wasn’t you who was going to marry Philip。

(8) Barrie TG 399有It is myself who is writing at last。

(9) Doyle NP 95有I told them who it was that they had helped to rescue。

(10) Dickinson C 55有Yes,it is we who do not accept it that practice the Gospel of peace。

(11) Benson D 2。251有It is only people who can’t see at all,that see the other aspect of it。

(12) Locke St 33有It is only women who live alone that can know what it is to yearn to have a man’s strong arm。

(13) Stevenson D 1有All is not gold that glitters。

(14) Hope R 224有Who that knows what man and woman are would not have shrunk from that alternative?

(15) Walpole DW 410有You’re the best friend that he’s got。

(16) McKenna Sh 150有you’re the only one that knows your own feelings。

(17) Bridges E 19有the last poor hope of them that fear;

Athena,mistress good of them that know。

(18) Maxwell F 223有He thought of the story of her whole lift—the mother that was worse than no mother…。

(19) Mackenzie S 1。371有asking themselves in whispers what man this was that came among them whith so sad an expression。

(20) Merrick MG 129有On which side had he cast the weight of his opinion—this man that she had never seen?

(21) Phillpotts GR 181有I,that thought I was strong,prove so weak。

在詞後表示人稱的這種趨勢下降的原因之一,是人們更多的是受書面格式的影響,認為that是中性的(相對於陽性和陰性),因為它和強重讀的指示代詞(demonstrative pronoun)的拼法方式是一樣的,都拼讀為[ðæt]。

某些情況下,使用who可以避免引起混淆,因此,在all後面有:儘管表示數量沒有疑問(all that is found是中性,而all that are found是人稱),假如‘everybody’為其含義並使用’everything’來限制all that might be found,則我們說all who might be found則更為清晰。

Fowler,MENU 716,寫道“當前,用that來表示人,比起用來表示事物,顯得很勉強。在習語中,禮貌佔有很大成分,寫成:The ladies that were present,或The general that most distinguished himeself,也會,會感覺得這是一種怠慢,剝奪了他們的人性…我們可以選擇這樣表達,我們可能選擇用that來這樣表達而不會被人質疑迂腐:The most impartial critic that could be found|The only man that I know of|Anyone that knows anything knows this|It was you that said so|Who is it that talks about moral geography?”增強that在表示人的程度,對於習語的改革者來說,是划算的事情。但是如果強行嘗試註定會失敗。”(對比此作者前面的評述KE 83:that表示人除了表示誇張或類似的詞彙之後,已“變得過時老舊”)。(

也就是說,用that來表示人已經顯得過時,即使你要用that表示人,也要體有體現人的詞在句中,否則容易被人質疑不禮貌。

Sweet §2141章節有這樣的例子:“then the children were lifted out by the mother;and then the nurse,an awkward,plain girl that nobody helped,tumbled out by herself”。他解釋稱,這樣使用that,省略掉了關係,會導致混淆或者尷尬,另一方面,說話者在這兒會避開賓格who,這樣會被當成‘無語法’看待,使用Whom又會明顯有點書呆子氣。儘管如此,可能會說成,從句和形容詞一樣僅是描述的一部分,因此實際上是名詞性實詞girl的限制成分。類似的例子是,Shaw A 190有your duchess is only a flower girl that you taught。Sweet的解釋可能是歸因於Shaw C 7(一個學童的講話:)Tatham,that the doctor thinks such a genius,does all his constering[即construing] from cribs—但是這對我們理解同樣出處的that沒有幫助,同樣出處161有Lord Worthington,that comes to see you when he likes——在McKenna手抄本的84頁“Even Oxford,that I thought could never alter,had changed during my absence”,

使用that的原因可能是使用who感覺太人稱化了,而另一方面,使用which又太物化了

Who不用作謂語;原因似乎是謂語感覺比羅中性(關於中性(neuter)參見<>),因此,前面的一些例子使用that就是基於這種考慮。類似的例子還有:

(1) Kennnedy CN 201頁有He remembered her suddenly as the defenceless creature that she had been when last they all together;

同樣出處234頁有remembering the tolerant,unsuspicious creature that she used to be。

(2) Locke GP 195頁有he would have revealed himself as the man that he really as;

同樣出處255頁有Nothing about her to betray the woman that he had long since known her to be [De Quingcey 337頁有Like the sensible girl that we have always found her];

(3) 注意Shaw Ms 96頁中的中性all,I am all that a woman ought to be。

That在下面結構的句子中也用作謂語附加語,即透過在句中加入that構成從句,使得句子表現出同位語結構,這時that在從句中充當謂語附加語:

(1) Chaucer,The Canterbury Tales 3。1565節有never the bet for yow,

Fox that ye been

,god yeve your herte care!

(2) Bunyan P 51頁有but that,

uretched man that I am

! I slept;

同樣出處211頁有alas for them,

poor men that they are

!;

(3) Gay BP 63頁有Did I let him escape,(

Fool that I was

!) to go to her?

(4) Di F 274頁有Good! cries Twemlow,

polite little gentleman that he is

(4) Di X 209頁有The Carrier as in high spirits,

good fellow that he was

(5) Hardy L 100頁有Mrs Harnham—

lonely impressionable creature that she was

(6) Gosse F 301頁有he really allowed her,

grim vixen that she was

,to disturb his plans;

(7) Bennett A 69頁有a lot of you,

fools that you are

,have come here to hear me;

(8) Hawth T 128頁有But Philemon,simple and

kind-hearted old man that he was,

had not many secrets;

(9) Shaw P 255頁有you recovered the estate ensily enough then,

robber and rascal that you are

在孤立感嘆句中也經常使用類似的組合,只是在此型別句中that不充當任何句中成分的同位語(那麼感嘆句中的that充當什麼成分?)

,例如:

(1) BJo 1。90章節有

Beast that I was

,to trust him!

(2) Tenn 295頁有

Fool that I am

to be vext with his pride!

(3) Di D 672頁有Ha,ha!

The liars that these traders are!

(4) Kingsley H 252 Unthinking

fool that I was!

(5) Hardy L 46頁有 O the fool,

the fool that I was!

在形容詞之後,通常在這樣的同位語作附加語的句中和感嘆句中使用as,除了下面句子中的例外情況:

(1) Sh Gent V。4。28章節有O miserable,vnhappy that I am!

(2) Kingsley H 42頁有Foolish that I am!

而在Di Do 246頁中,that透過as而重複使用,即as代替了that的角色

who takes me,refuse that I am,and as I well deserve to be。

2。1。2 使用be動詞的從句中使用that表示人稱

有一個有趣的習語,儘管僅包括be動詞格式的從句通常是非限定性的且可能指的是人稱,也習慣使用that;這樣使用除了表示時間關係之外沒有別的目的(在一些美語中這種時間關係透過名詞性實詞自身的時態詞尾變換(tense-inflextion)來實現)

。有一些獨立句中使用了廢棄的be,例如:the powers that be;更多的例子:

(1) FQ V。4節有Right now is wrong,and

wrong that was is right

(2) Swift UL 14頁有Do you mean

Lady Jenny Forbes that was

(3) Defoe R 2。212章節有 my partner oblig’d the

prior that then was

,to go to the Monastery;

(4) Goldsm V 2。219章節有

Lady Thornhill

that was to be

) should take the lead;

(5) Di Do 274頁有

Mrs Dombey that is to be

,will be very senible of your attention;

(6) Carlyle F 3。95頁有I call

each chapter that was

,a book,and have subdivided all these into chapters [=each devision that was [called] a chapter];

同樣出處R 2。181有The last paragraph [of FR] I well remember writing upstairs in

the drawing-room that now is

,which was then my writing-room;

同樣出處1。282頁有Somewhere near

the Admiralty (that now is,and perhaps then was)

(7) Holmes A 317頁有three [trees] blew down in

my woods (that were)

in 1852;

(8) Hardy R 54頁有

my wife tha is now

,went…;

(9) Swinb L 92頁有people began to talk of her as

Lady Cheyne that was to be

(10) Lang T 18頁有So much of the poet that was to be existed in the little volume of the undergraduate;

Who例外的情況:Mrs。 Browning A 125頁有She has sent me to find

a cousin of mine who shall be

(也就是說someone who is to marry my cousin)。

在俗化口語中有as,Bennet RS 190頁有He married Mrs。 Arb,as was。

在下列組合句中有一個有趣的變體:

Mrs。 Hrrison,Miss Brown that was

Miss Brown,Mrs。 Harrison that is to be

;這兒,名詞性實詞充當同位語,後接關係從句,可理解為跟隨動詞的附加語,但是,如果我們轉述這個句子用於表達這樣的含義,會使用who而不是that:Mrs。 Harrison,who was Miss B。,很明顯,從句是非限定性從句。同樣的結構的句子在西班牙語中有確切對應的例子:don N,consul que fué de Espa ña(Hanssen,西班牙語語法§54,3和39,3)。英語的例子(注意,引用自Thackeray的在第二個從句中的who):

(1) Gamelyn 38頁有fergetith nat Gamelyn,

my ʒonge sone that is

(2) Sh Merch II 2。90有I am Lancelet your boy that was,

your sonne that is,your childe that shall be

(3) Peacock M 166頁有Next to him is Miss Crotchet,

my sister in law that is to be

(4) Quincey 94頁有I therefore,

Deucalion that was or had been

provisionally;

(5) Thack N 618頁有Clive’s qcquaintance,

Mr。 Belsize that was,Lord Highgate who is now

(6) Herrick T 71頁有Saw your friend

Miss Pallanton that was—Mrs

。 Woodyard—at the Stantons’。

Who例外的情況:Walpole C 431有Miss Milton,

librarian who was

,had obtained this letter。

2。1。3 that that現象(關係詞that+指示代詞that或相反)

當今,關係詞that通常避免出現在指示代詞that之後

(儘管弱that後跟指示性從句並沒有明顯缺點,例如“I maintain that that view is wrong|anything that that lady does looks pretty。”)。Adduson曾嘲笑過這種太多that的用法行為,但是下面例子表明,一些作者無懼這種搭配的使用:

(1) Fulg 22頁有by that that ye say ye force not what myne ans were be;

(2) More U 182頁有in that that nature doth allure;

(3) Shakespeare Gent IV 2。87章節有Who is that that spake?

(4) As I 2。80章節有if you sweare by that that is not,you are not forsworn;

(5) Wiv I 1。218章節有I shall doe that that is reason;

同樣出處II 2。216章節有Pursuing that that flies,and flying whaqt pursues;

(6) Walton A 65頁有sing us a song,that that was sung by you and your daughter,when I last past;

(7) Bunyan P 4有little of that that I am seeking to enjoy。

現在,替代that that的代詞有what,that which,或(當提到一件具體的事情的時候,例如示例中Walton的例子)使用the one that或the one which。

儘管如此,人們仍然接受it is之後使用that that,例如:

(1) Hope D 52頁有it’s just that that makes stories like yours so infernally uninteresting;

同樣出處Z 171頁有it’s not only that,sir,that keeps him away;

(2) Stevenson M 282頁有it was partly that that brought me down;

(3) Doyle S 6。233章節有it’s that that turns my soul into water;

(3) Merriman S 143頁有It is that particular point which gives me trouble。It is that that I wish to discover。

現在

甚至指示性附加語(demonstrative adjunct)that之後出現關係詞that這種情況也很少見

,以前像這樣使用的例子:

(1) Congreve 251頁有do you mean that fair-weather spark that was here just now?

(2) Johnson in Bosw。 1。130章節有if it can be made probable ,that that union that has received the divine approbation shall continue;

(3) Wells TM 53頁有Under the new conditions of perfect security,that restless energy,that with us is strength,would become weakness;

(4) Walp RH 169頁有to preserve that life that but now he had thought to throw away。

更多寫作者選擇使用that…which。

然而,在這兒,勉強使用that(或者,至少不是非用不可)的原因和中性首品詞使用that還的情況還不一樣,而是指示代詞that的增強,其使得關係從句確定的限定性減弱,因此,偏愛使用wh-代詞。一方面,是因為和接觸從句一樣,這種情況下不喜歡使用that,另一方面,在複數的附加詞those之後偏愛使用who和which,這和聽起來是否悅耳沒有關係:當首品詞those之後的that變得通用之後,附加詞之後使用that就更為少見了,例如Di O 422頁有those joyous little faces that clustered round her knee。

2。1。4 so、such之後的that和否定後的類似that I know用法

有時候,在so和such之後,使用關係that從句,而在今天,一般使用that+人稱代詞構成的結果從句這種結構來代替,例如:

(1) Shakespeare the Rape of Lucrece 854頁有no perfection is so absolute,That some impuritie doth not pollute;

(2)Shakespeare Hamlet III 4。41章節有Such an act That blurres the grace and blush of modestie;

(3) Shakespeare Cæs I 2。316章節有For who so firme,that cannot be seduc’d?

Shakespeare Cæs III 2。30章節有Who is the here so base that would be a bondsman? Who is here so rude that would not be a Roman? Who is here so vile that will not loue his country?

(4) Mi A 28頁有Who is sho unread or so uncatechis’d in story,that hath not heard…

也可對比,Carlyle H 138頁有Who ware you that presume to school the nobles?(==that you are ,since you)。—Which有類似的使用:Swift 3。237章節有there is nothing so extravagant and irrational which some philosophers have not maintained for truth。

That總是用在在否定之後的that I know(=‘so far as I know’)或者類似的表達句中,

(即前面是否定表達,後接that I know或類似的表達句)。

在這種使用中That發音為[ðət]且一定會被當成關係詞;在丹麥語中類似的用法要麼是使用det(指示代詞)要麼是使用更為流行的at(連線詞),但是這種用法並沒有更多的好處,例如:“ikke det jeg veed|ikke at jeg har hørt”。下面是一些這種用法的例子(最早的牛津詞典始於1460年):

(1) Chaucer B 1024頁有fader hath he soon,

That I of wot

Chaucer Jo 3。35章節有He was a kinsman to you?

That I know of

(2) Bunyan G 12頁有I felt what guilt was,though never before,

that I can remember

(3) Di D 374頁有I looked at nothing,

that I kwon of

,But I saw everything;同樣出處121頁有he took a book sometimes,but never read it

that I saw

;同樣出處254頁有I had no particular liking,that I could discover,for anything;

(4) Carlyle R 1。15章節有My father has not,that I can think of,left his fellow;同樣出處2。104章節Several blackguards among our ancestors,but not one blockhead

that I heard of!

(5) Ru F 86頁有we are not sinners,

that we know of

(6) Swinb L 101頁有I never was hand and glove with him,

that I remember

非否定中使用這種結構的that非常罕見,例如:Carlyle R 157頁有twice that I recollect I specially saw him。

2。1。5 that之後的動詞+前置詞的用法

That就像古英語中的小品詞(particle,極小量,小詞) þe,不像wh-代詞(wh-代詞前面可以出現前置詞(preposition)),其前面永遠不會有前置詞。在早期中古英語中,前置詞(或者是副詞)是放在動詞的前面的,後來又放到動詞的後面,在現代英語中一直是這樣(這裡指的是與動詞搭配時前置詞of放到了後在,此時不應該認為of是在動詞短語的介詞,而是構成了動詞短語)。下面是例子(只有幾個是必要的):

(1) Vices a V51 Heðat alle cnewers(=knees) to cnelið;

(2) Ar 192頁有þet þing þet ich am of scheadewe;同樣出處68頁有þet ilke uniseli gile þet ich of seide;

(3) Chaucer MP 3。964章節有torche bright That every man may take of light ynogh,and hit hath never the lesse;

(4) Fulg 22頁有this is the mater that I come fore;

(5) Shakespeare H4A II 1。77章節有there are other Trojans that thou dreamiest not of;

Shakespeare Hamlet III 1。63章節有the thousand natural shockes That flesh is heyre to;

同樣出處III 1。82章節有rather beare those illes we haue,Then flye to others that we know not of;and be baptized with the baptisme that I am baptized with?

(6) AV Ex 32。13章節有and all this land that I haue spoken of,will I giue vnto your seed;

(7) Goldsm 656頁有somebody that I known of;

(8) Sheridan 269頁有you will never read anything that’s worth listening to;

(9) De Quincey 354頁有it is not you that I am angry with;

(10) Di N 207頁有Mr。 Watkinds,you know,Kate,that your poor papa went bail for;

(11) Marett Anthropol。 57頁有he protects [his head] with something that Neolithic man was probably without,namely,an old bowler hat;

(12) Locke F S 202頁有bookcases filled with books that no gentleman’s library should be without ;

(13) Calsw Frat 132頁有(俗化)till she …with her mouth that you can tell she’s bad by。

有時候,我們會看到有兩個動詞,一個有前置詞,而另一個沒有,例如在More U 146頁有these thynges that men vse and lyue by。另一個有些不同的例子,Di N 582頁有ruddy lips that to look at is to long to kiss。

對比接觸從句(contact-clauses)和wh-代詞從句的類似句子。

2。1。6 that引導時間、行為的附加語

關係詞that常用於wh-代詞不適合的場合:假如我們換掉which,加入一個前置詞是很有必要的,在關係從句中,整個組合構成了一個次修飾語。(但是像這樣的從句是先行詞的附加修飾語)。這在表示時間的時候特別常用,被認為是正確的用法。

例如:

(1) Chaucer A 44頁有fro the tyme that he first began To ryden out,he loved chivalrye;

(2) Shakespeare LLL V。2。1。143章節有Vpon the next occasion that we meete;同樣出處Wint IV 4。688章節有this is the time that the vnjust man doth thriue;

(3) AV Luke 17。27章節有vntill the day that Noe entred into the arke;同樣出處29頁有But the same day that Lot went out of Sodome,it rained fire;

(4) Defoe G 31頁有at the same time that he claims to be known;

(5) Wells H 33頁有He was able to remark…the while that his eyes sought eagerly for the other occupant of the car;

(6) Butler Er 264頁有the driver can stop the engine at any moment that he pleases。

在表示行為等的詞後,that通常也有同樣的用法,作為關係詞引導附加修飾語,但是“現在通常認為這種用法不太優雅”(牛津詞典,最大的那一部,目前20本那部。)

。下面是用法例子:

(1) Marl J 21430章節有This is the reason that I sent for thee;

(2) Shakespeare Merch II 6。8章節有who riseth from a feast with that keene appetite that he sites downe?Where is the horse that doth vntread againe His tedious measure whith the vnbated fire That he did pace them first?

Shakespeare As(as you like it) I 2。9章節有thou lou’st mee not with the full waight that I loue thee;

(3) Spect 41頁有The pope’s sister was in those mean circumstances that Pasquin represented her;同樣出處有The pop’s sister was in those mean circumstances that Pasquin represented her;同樣出處2頁有it was bounded by the same hedges in William he Conqueror’s time that it is at present;

(4) Swift P 31頁有by spelling the words in the very same Manner that they are pronounced by the Chief Patterns of Politeness;

(5) Austen p 320頁有he spoke with the same good-humoured ease that he had ever done;

(6) Dickinson C 56頁有The reason that I stand for var is,not that I admire the activity of killing and being killed in the modern way,but that I admire the power to face and endure that;

(7) Philips L 54頁有we parted in the same cordial fashion that we met;

(8) Butler Er 123頁有if he had seen the matter in the same light that I did。

由“

the moment that

he entered”和“

by the time that

you are dressed,breakfast will be ready”這樣的組合句子,我們想到了極少使用的這樣的句子“

directly that

he discovered her,he turned away”,

在類似這些句子中

是副詞(adverb)而不是名詞的實詞(substantive)充當先行詞

因此,通常使用

now that

例如:

(1) Shakespeare John III 4。180章節有’tis(‘tis=it is) wonderfull,what may be wrought out of their discontent,Now that their soules are topfull of offence(H6 C IV 6。1);

(2) Mary Shelley F 136頁有At first I had neglected them [papers];but now that I was able to decipher the characters,I began to study them with digligence;

(3) Di D(Charles Dickens,David Copperfield。 London 1897,手抄本)596頁有Dora come stealing down to meet me,now that I was alone;

(4) Shaw 1。189 Now that I think of it,dearie,don’t you go encouraging him。

Now that

有時候半丟失(half loses)其臨時性和接近‘considering,seeing that’的含義; 在一些句中,使用

now when

來替換掉純粹“臨時性”的含義,例如:

(1) Mary Shelley F 236頁有I renew this request now when I am only induced by reason and virtue…and now that you are returning to England you will have little chance of meeting with him;

(2) Carlyle FR 444頁有now that his Majesty has accepted the Constitution,who would not hope?…the Queen herself,now when the Constitution is accepted,hears voice of cheering。

也對應於once that的使用,例如:Ru Sel 2。406章節有once that they are established…very few years are enough。

假如directly,now,once以相應的方式使用而無that,對於這些詞的轉換術語上歸類為“連詞(conjunctions)”。

在最近這些年,類似everywhere和anywhere與關係詞that合用的情況相當普遍;應當與同樣的單詞而無that的這種情況比較,在句中作為附加修飾成分。例如:

(1) Kipl J 1。223章節有they are taken up mountains,anywhere that a mule can find a road;

(2) Wilde In 201頁有everywhere that Shakespeare turned in London,he saw…;

(3) Carpenter P 104頁indeed almost anywhere that the distinctively commercial civilization has not set its mark;

(4) McKenna Sh 57頁有I used to get sent anywhere that there was good copy to be obtained;同樣出處K 175頁有electric lights…they are hung so that you get no light anywhere that you want it;

(5) Walpole C 196頁有Everywhere that Ronder went he spoke enthusiastically about the Archdeacon。

同樣方式用於擴充套件的anywhere之後的例子:

(1) Galsworthy F 317頁有who lives in London,Cannes,and anywhere else that the whim takes him;

(2) James 工1。193 I will takes you to live anywhere in the wide world that you propose。

很容易看出,關係詞that的這種用法和it is 後接一個次修飾語(subjunct)的用法密切相關,例如:

(1) It was

there(或,in Italy,in my early youth,then,in this way) that

I first made his acquaintance;

(2) Stev T 58頁有It was on seeing that boy that I understood,for the first time ,my situation;

(3) It is because he is cruel to animals that I dislike him。對比這兩個句子“It was his independence that he fought for”和“It was for his independence that he fought”;“It is the younger firm that I am transacting business with”和“It is with the younger firm that I am transacting business”。確實是正確的用法,大部分甚至全部語法學家都將這兩種情況分開,一個說成是使用關係代詞,而另一個是使用了連詞。

文學中偏好使用wh-代詞,這有時候會將寫作者引入歧途,因此他們使用which,這種情況就需要連線詞that,例如:

(1) Austen P 288頁有it is not of peculiar,but of general evils,which I am now complaining。當然,如果這個句子是這樣,使用which更為合理:It is not peculiar,but general which I am now complaining of。

(2) 另一方面,Thackeray使用了一個冗餘的to:VF 296頁有It was to Mrs Brent,the beetle-browed wife of Mr。 Commissary Brent,to whom the General transferred his attentions。

最後,對比對應無that的情況(省略掉that):

(1) Sheridan 302頁有is’t thus we meet?

(2) Masterman WL 34頁有It was here he led his simple home life;

(3) Shaw Ms 107頁有it was to Tyler we owed the Fitton theiry。

2。1。7 that用法總結

因此,在考察了that的這些實際用法之後,我們需要對這些問題進行總結,關係詞究竟是什麼,目前已發現的各種用法中,(在具體應用中)究竟應該選擇使用那一種?是代為代詞,還是別的什麼?

作者認為(Otto Jespersen),在本章節中考察的關係詞that,最好的稱謂並不是代詞,而是小品詞

(particle,作者提出的三品詞理論,見作者另一本著作,<> 87頁,精裝本),或者有人在小品詞的頭部再拆分出幾個子分類也行,然後將它稱為連線詞(conjunction,或connective)。這使得我們可以清楚的看出拼法相同的兩個詞的區別(

即同一種拼法that,一個表示代詞,一個表示連詞,

認為是拼法相同的兩個詞。

):

(a) 指示代詞,單數that(全母音),複數those,

(b) 連詞(無詞尾變化的小品詞) that(弱母音)。

然後,我們也來理解兩種從句的高度相似性,兩者都有可能帶或不帶引導詞that:

(1) I know (that) you mentioned the man。

(2) I know the man (that) you mentioned。

I know the man (that) you spoke of。

I knew it the moment (that) you mentioned it。

Now (that) it the moment (that) you mentioned it。

Now (that) you mention it,I remember perfectly well。

It is his own confession (that) I lay most stress on。

It is on his own confession (that) I lay most stress。

並行對比

as,that

but

。(

以上例句中,說that是代詞或者連詞好像都沒錯,那就當成引導詞,或者稱為關係詞也沒錯,說成小品詞也行,不管怎麼稱謂,都不影響對上面句子的理解

。)

將that視作關係代詞,這樣做主要的或唯一的原因是,在從句中,that似乎充當了who和which的功能——在關係上充當主語或謂語,例如像下面的句子

There is a man { who/that} wants to speak to you。

This is the man {whom/that} we met yesterday。

I like the dress {which/that} you wore yesterday。

另一方面,假如我們稱呼關係詞that為小品詞(連詞),在以上三個例子從句中,第一個似乎沒有主語,第二個第三個似乎沒有賓語。難道就不能稱為小品詞嗎?不然,相反,that從句,更接近接觸從句(contact-clauses),就語法分析而言,下面例句和上面例句完全一樣,主語或謂語缺失:

There is a man below

wants to speak to you

This is the man

we met yesterday

I like the dress

you wore yesterday

我們必須認識到這個事實,存在沒有主語的從句

——但是,其它從句也是一樣,在這樣的句子中,甚至透過假設省略主語或者假設一個主語都是不可能的,例如,在than之後:Hamlet 1 5。167章節有There are more things in Heauen and earth,Horatio,Then are dream’t of in our (your) philosophy。

假如持這種觀點,我們一定會進一步的說,of在句子“Here is the key that you spoke of”中沒有主語:因此,對於of,正如它所表現的那樣,從一個前置詞,降級為一個副詞(關於區別,參見作者的著作<> 88頁)。但是,奇怪的事是, 這正好與中古時期的語法本能完全一致,對於這幾種情況,在格式上區分了前置詞(不帶e)和對應的副詞(帶e),後面這種格式用於下列這種型別的例子中:

(1) Oros 268頁有þæt hus þe hiora godas

inne

wæron;

(2) Chaucer E 1837頁有blessed be the yok that we been

inne

(押韻:sinne);

(3) AR 192頁有þeo ilke uondungers þet we beoð nu ibeaten

mide

;同樣出處 194頁有hit is Judases cos þet he ou

mide

cusseð;

作者(Otto Jespersen)無意之間看到過伊麗莎白時期在從句尾使用withall,因為withall可以認為是屬於前置詞with的副詞:

(1) Shakespeare Wiv II 1。90章節有one that I am not acquainted withall;

(2) AV Mark 10。39章節有and with the baptisme that I am baptized withall,shall ye be baptized。

在這兒,必須提到的是,支撐這種觀點的最後一個論據是,關係詞that在早期的詩歌中有相當頻繁的使用,這使that更靠近連線詞,在這種場合,在連詞,關係副詞,關係代詞之後,我們看來是多餘的,在現代時期,從禮貌及類似的角度考慮,下面這些用法早就被拋棄掉了:

if that,unless that,less that,because that,for that,though that,but that,after that,before that,ere that,since that,till that,while(whilst) that,how that,where that,when that,why that,whether that

關係代詞之後類似的用法:

who that,which that,what that

在喬叟和其同一時期的著作中隨處可見,例如:

(1) Mandev。 179頁有every man takethe what part that him lykethe;

同一出處184頁有fro what partie of the erthe that men duelle…;

同一出處221頁有And whoso that wole,may leve me, ʒif he wille;and who so wille not,may cluse;

同一出處247頁有the husbonde may ligge with whom of hem that him lykethe。

——源於15世紀。

(2) Caxton R 63頁有who that is deed muste abyde deed;

同一出處36頁to saye what he wolde;

同一出處58頁有what that pleseth the kynge,that muste wel be don。

類似,在獨立疑問句中,例如:Fulg 24頁有Loke what answer that ye now haue。

因此,我們已經歸類總結了很多種現象,傳統語法把句子分成各種單獨的成分,儘管不用任何的格式詞或是是空的,將這些成分連線起來與原含義也相同,因此,在很多情況下,小品詞that都是多餘的。我們甚至可以說,在句子

I know you mentioned the man

中,和在句子

I know the man you mentioned

中, 我們有直接接觸從句,在句子I know that you mentioned the man中,和在句子I know the man that you mentioned中,我們有同樣的從句稱為中間接觸從句,that用於將這兩個句子緊密相連的成分粘合在一起。

作者(Otto Jespersen)曾經在其讀研究生的時候首先持有這種觀點,在其論文“Kortfattet engelsk Grammatik for tale- og skriftsproget”(Copenhagen 1885年)中提出:文中,作者特別提到,避免使用名稱代詞,及在其它場景中使用that的例子“I know the man (that) you mentioned”和“I disconvered it the moment (that) I entered”在腳註中帶有“directly I entered”。然後喚起注意這些從句之間以及“genstandssætninger”(內容從句)的一致性:兩者都加入到主句中,要麼是直接的加入“I know the man you mentioned”|“I know you mentioned him”,要麼是透過that加入,這與非重讀時的指示詞that有區別。也提到丹麥語中有並行的格式存在“den mand at du talte om”,等等。

最近,Kruisinga已經提出了這樣的觀點,that不是代詞,而是一個連詞,參見

English Studies,

Oct。 1924和Febr。 1927;後者,他提出了一個新的論據來支撐我們的通用觀點,即“在句子

I heard it from a lady who herself was present

中,代詞who不能被that替換,理由是herself不能加入連詞”。[但是寫成這樣this is the man that had written the article himself又如何?,這是相當常見的。]

2。2。柯林斯英語用法(COBUILD English Usage)對that的講解。

柯林斯的講解比較貼近現在,實用簡潔明瞭。

That有三個主要的用法,下面逐一展開。

2。2。1 that用於回指(referring back)。

That用於指前面已經提到的或者已知曉的事物的種場合。用於回指時,that的發音總是/ðæt/。例如:

I was so proud of

that

car! 我為那輛車感到自豪!

How about natural gas? Is

that

an alternative? 天然氣怎麼樣?是一個折中方案嗎?

用於回指時,that是單數,複數是those。當that和those用於指人,事件,事件,或時間段時,用法各有不同。

2。2。1。1 用於回指。

可以使用that或者those來表示前面已提及的或者已知的人,事物或事件。例如:

I knew

that meeting would be difficult

。 我知道,會面比較困難。

‘Did you see him?’,—‘No’—‘

That’s

a pity。’ “你見過他嗎?”——“沒有”——“那是一個遺憾。”

Not all crimes are committed for

those

reasons。 並非所有的犯罪都是由於這些原因。

There are still a few problems with the software,but we’re working hard to remove

those

軟體還有問題,但是我們正在努力解決。

2。2。1。2 用於指你能看到的人們或事物。

可以使用that或those來指你能看到的不近身的人或事物。例如:

Look at

that

bird。 看,那兒有隻鳥。

Don’t be afraid of

those

people。 不用懼怕那些人。

2。2。1。3 ‘that’用於指人。

儘管一般情況下不能用that作為代詞來代指人,僅當你在確定某人的身份,或者詢問關於某人的身份的時候可以使用that。

例如:

‘Who’s the woman in the red dress?’—‘

That’s

my wife。’

“穿紅衣服的那個女子是誰?”——“那是我妻子。”

Who’s that? 那是誰?

2。2。1。4 當某事發生後用於述說。

當你一直在描述一個事件,你可以使用that後接day,morning或afternoon來述說發生一天中的其它事情。例如:

There were no classes

that day

.

那天沒課

Paula had been shopping

that morning

。 那天上午Paula一直在逛商場。

你也可以使用that後接week,month,或year來表示發生在同一周,

週一月,或者同一年的事情。例如:

There was a lot of extra work to do

that week

。 那周有很多其它工作要做。

Later that month they attended another party at Maidenhead。

那月晚些時候他們加入了在Maidenhead的另一場聚會。

2。2。2 that用於從句中,稱為that從句。

that用於特別從句的開頭構成that從句,指一個事實或者一個想法。在that從句中的that通常發音為/ ðət /。例如:

He said

that he was worry。

他承認他做錯了。

Mrs Kaul announced

that the lecture would now begin

。 Kaul夫人宣佈演講現在開始。

2。2。2。1 用於引用(report)說過的關於某件事的陳述。

例如:

She said

that she’d been married for about two months

。 她說她已結婚大約兩個月了。

Sir Peter recently announced

that he is to retire at the end of the year。

Peter先生最近宣稱他將在年底退休。

2。2。2。2 用於形容詞後,表明某人的感知,或者確信感知的事或相關的事。

例如:

She was sure

that he meant it

。 她確信他指的就是它。

He was frightened that something terrible might be said。 他害怕提及某些可怕的事。

可以在it it和一個形容詞之後使用that從句來評價某種狀況或某件事實。

It is

extraordinary that we have never met。

我們遇到了前所未有的異常情況

2。2。2。3 用於名詞後,指某人所說或所想。

例如用於assumption,feeling和rumour之後,指某人所說的或所想的,後面可以接that從句:

Our strategy has been based on

the assumption that the killer is just one man

我們的方案是基於殺手僅有一個人的這樣一個假設。

I had

a feeling that no-one thought I was good enough

。 我感覺沒人認為我很好。

There is no truth in the rumour that he is resigning。 關於他正準備辭職的謠言沒有真相。

2。2。2。4 用於be之後,用作補語。

例如:

Our hope is

that this time all parties will co-operate

。 我們希望這次所有的會議聯合舉行。

The important thing is

that we love each other

。 最重要的是我們互相相愛。

2。2。2。5 省略that的情況。

有時候,在以上4種情況中,that可以省略掉,特別是在口語中。

例如:

He knew

the attempt was hopeless

。 他知道這種嘗試是徒勞的。

She is sure

Henry doesn’t mind

。 她確信Henry不介意。

I have the feeling

I’ve read this book already。

我感覺我讀過這本書。

2。2。2。6 關於’the fact that’句子。

在非常正式的英語中,that從句常常用作句子的主語。

例如:

That people can archive goodness

is evident through all of history。

縱觀歷史,人們可以心存善良,這是很顯然的。

儘管如此,如果主動詞是引用動詞或be動詞,通常用it作主語,that從句隨後。例如:

It cannot be denied that this view is justified。 不可否認,這種看法很有道理。

其它的情況,通常使用the fact結構加that從句來作主語。

例如:

The fact that he is always late

should make you question how reliable he is。

他總是遲到這個事實,應該會使你對他的可靠性產生懷疑。

以the fact that開頭的結構也用於不能後接簡單that從句的前置詞賓語和動詞的賓語。

例如:

We expect acknowledgement of

the fact that we were treated badly

我們希望人們承認我們受到虐待的事實。

We overlooked the fact that the children’s emotional development had been affected。

我們忽略了孩子的情感發展受到了影響這一事實。

2。2。3 that作為關係詞。

2。2。3。1關係從句的定義。

關係從句(relative clause)是一個下級從句(subordinate clause),為主句談到的人或事物提供更多的資訊。例如:

The man

who came into the room

was short and thin。 走進房間這個男子又矮又瘦。

Opposite is St。 Paul’s Church,

Where you can hear some lovely music

對面是聖保羅教堂,在那兒你可以聽到一些美炒的音樂。

2。2。3。2 that在關係從句中指人。

當指一個人或一群人的時候,that可以在關係從句中充當主語,也可充當賓語。

He was the man

that

bought my house。 that在關係從句中作主語。

…a woman

that

I dislke。 that在關係從句中作賓語。

2。2。3。3 that在關係從句中指物。

當指一件事物或多件事物時,that可以在句中充當主語,也可充當賓語。

通常,that在美國英語中更為常見。

2。2。3。4 關係從句中不使用關係代詞that。

在限定性關係從句中,不必使用關係代詞作為動詞的賓語,例如’a woman that I dislike’,可以用’a woman I dislike’代替。

標簽: 從句  was  he  WHO  代詞